《周礼》饮食制度研究

【作者】 王雪萍；

【导师】 田汉云；

【作者基本信息】 扬州大学 ， 中国古代文学， 2007， 博士

【摘要】 《周礼》是儒家的重要经典之一,也是我国典章制度的开创性著作。尽管在经学史上围绕《周礼》的真伪问题聚讼千年,但《周礼》在思想文化领域作为儒家经典的崇高地位却从未动摇过,在历代制度建设史上也具有深广的影响,直至今日仍为制度研究者重视。《周礼》通过设立庞大的食官机构,明确食官职责,构建了我国上古最完整最系统的饮食制度,包括系统严密的食官制度,礼制规定下的王室饮食结构及膳食制度,等级分明的饮食器具使用制度,明君臣之义尊卑有别的饮食礼制。《周礼》所记载的饮食制度为中国古代饮食制度之滥觞,其所蕴含的饮食思想和饮食观念对中国饮食文化的发展起着不可忽视的指导作用。本文以《周礼》文献为主要研究对象,在梳理、整合饮食资料的基础上,依照食官职能,明确《周礼》饮食制度的类别与内涵,从学术层面考察《周礼》食官制度、饮食结构和膳食制度、饮食器具使用制度、食礼制度;结合先秦其它文献和考古材料等,采用比较的方法,点与面结合的方式,辨释、考证相关制度,展示《周礼》饮食制度的全貌。《周礼》食官规模庞大,有50种食官和3794名餐饮技术人员,其职能涵盖了饮食活动的全过程。将先秦文献记载的食官与金文比较分析、考证,得出《周礼》中的11种食官在金文中能找到相对应的职官,其职能包括了饮食制作过程的主要环节,这证明《周礼》食官制度与西周食官制度在相当程度上具有一致性。《周礼》食官制度的膳食管理之权依附于行政管理之权,食政交融;食官职能与祭祀活动密不可分,食官兼具提供王室膳食以及祭祀食品的双重职责;食官被排在“六官”之首的天官系统的前列,在《周礼》职官体系中占有相当重要的地位。食、饮、膳、羞构成了《周礼》王室的饮食结构,其中主食为六谷米饭,饮为三酒六饮,菜肴是膳羞羹。从羹的制作原料、加工方法和食用方式方面考察,证实先秦羹不同于今日呈糊状的羹,是有肉块和一定量汁的食物。《周礼》饮食结构中的食品丰盛豪华,制作精致,菜肴已不只是佐餐的食物,其重要性等同或超过了主食,因此《周礼》饮食结构不同于先秦社会的基本型、普通型饮食结构中饭较菜重要的特征,它模糊了主食与菜肴的主次关系,成为礼制规定下食者政治地位、尊贵等级的体现。作为政治、哲学概念的“和”与五味调和有直接的渊源关系。《周礼》膳食制度中的“和”不仅仅是指烹饪制作中的五味调和,而且还指诸多食物性味的均衡、适中,食物与四时季节的协调一致,食物与人体的和谐统一。《周礼》中的因地选料、以时取料的原料选用制度,在于获得优质烹饪原料,它也保护了动植物资源,反映了《周礼》已具有人与自然和谐相处的朦胧意识。《周礼》王室膳食实行的是三餐制,表明先秦社会三餐制已出现。《周礼》设“司几筵”职掌宴饮活动中筵、席、几的使用制度,筵席由此发展成为宴饮的代名词。饮食器具的礼器化是《周礼》饮食器具的一个显著特征。《周礼》记载了以鼎为核心的等级分明的饮食器具使用制度,包括用鼎制度,鼎与簋、俎、镬、爨的组配,笾豆使用制度,尊卑异爵的饮酒器使用制度,六尊六彝盛酒器使用制度,天子圭瓒挹酒器使用制度。以鼎簋为核心的列器制度是周人“重食”观念在饮食器物上的反映。《周礼》按爵、命等级将饮食器具的组合分为四个等级,其中诸侯和天子“鼎簋十二”是东周的列器制度,它僭越了西周礼器制度。《周礼》中的饮食器具组合成为王室、贵族政治权势和社会地位的象征,是食以体政的工具。饮食礼制是对饮食活动中的程序、礼仪、礼器、食物的规定。《周礼》中的牢礼之法、饔飧食物礼、飨食燕礼就是这种程式化、制度化的饮食活动的体现。牢礼之法是在朝觐、会同、聘见宾客中,对牢礼、委积、膳献、饮食等多少等级及使用场合的规定,是饮食礼制的法纲。饔、飧是主国君致宾客的大小食物礼,是由朝食丰盛为饔、夕食降损为飧发展而来。《周礼》中的飨礼对象主要是宾客。从飨礼的全过程考察,飨礼不仅仅是历代学者认为的设盛礼向宾客致敬,还包括了设盛宴招待宾客。《周礼》在“大行人”、“掌客”职中规定,饔、飧食物礼和飨礼、食礼、燕礼按诸侯爵命分为三个等级。《周礼》在饮食活动中明确礼物等级,履行礼仪,是为了表达礼义,发挥礼的政治社会功能,以保证上下有序的统治形态,达到君、臣、民之间的和谐与国家的长治久安。更多还原

【Abstract】 Zhouli is a book of rites for the Zhou Dynasty, is one of the important Confucian classics, and it is also a pioneering work on the institutional system in our country. Although there were thousand-year-long arguments, even lawsuits, about the truth of Zhouli in classics history, as one of the Confucian classics, the lofty position of Zhouli has never been shakable in the ideological and cultural fields. The book exerted deeper and broader impact on the construction of rites systems of all following dynasties. Even at the present time importance of the book has still be attached by researchers.By setting up an unwieldy food-serving officials organization and defining their duties, Zhouli constituted a complete and systematic series of food-serving rules and regulations, including a strictly integrated food-serving officials regulation, a rite-stipulated royal food structure, a clearly-graded regulation of food utensil use and a dietetic rite showing the difference of the monarch from his subjects and the difference of the honorable from the humble. Food-serving rules and regulations recorded in Zhouli should be considered as the source of Chinese ancient dietetic rules and regulations. The dietetic ideology and concepts contained in them have been playing unneglectable guiding role in the development of Chinese dietetic culture.Taking the literature of Zhouli as an main object of study, the paper focused its efforts on the classification and connotation of the dietetic regulations of Zhouli. The study was conducted according to the duties and functions of food-serving officials on the basis of sorting out the data relating to food. Viewing from the academic angles, the paper made an exploration of food-serving official regulations, food structure and food-supply regulations, the regulations on food utensil use, food rites and so on. All corresponding regulations have been defined, explained, observed and investigated in combination with Pre-Qin literature studies and archaeological studies. Comparison and connection of the experience gained in areas and at points are the main way in which the study was conducted. The results of the study demonstrate the full outlook of food rules and regulations of Zhouli. Zhouli had a huge contingent of food-serving officials with 50kinds of different ranks and 3794catering technicians the functions of which covered the whole range of food-serving activities. The comparison and analysis of food-serving officials written in Pre-Qin literature indicated the kinds of food-serving officials in Zhouli could find their corresponding official posts recorded in the inscriptions on bronze ware and their duties and functions referred to all key links of food cooking process, thus showing that the food-serving regulations in Zhouli, to some extent, reached an uniformity with those in the West Zhou Dynasty. The power of food management stipulations of Zhouli attached itself to administrative rules. Food and politics blended as well as water and milk at that time. Apart from the above, food-serving officials duties were inseparable from sacrificial activities, and therefore, food-serving officials took on double duties: royal court food supply and sacrificial food supply. Food-serving officials were arranged in the forefront of the official system of Heaven ------the first of“Six Official Systems”and occupied considerably important position in the official structure of Zhouli. The diet for the royal court in Zhouli was composed of food, drink, cooked meats and different flavor dishes. Among them the main food was rice and other five cereals. Drink concluded three kinds of wine and six kinds of beverages. Dishes consisted of cooked meats, cuisines of different flavors and thick soup. Judging from the cooking materials processing methods and the way of eating it has been proved that Pre-Qin thick soup wasn’t what we have today. It was a kind of food with a certain amount of juice and meat cubes. Taking the sumptuousness and luxury of food and its fine processing in Zhouli into account, we realized that cuisine wasn’t only food eaten with rice. Its significance was equal and maybe overweighed that of main food. The dietetic structure in Zhouli changed and differed from what we called in the Pre-Qin society basic style or ordinary style food structure in which rice was more important than dishes. This structure gained some new characteristics which obscured the relationship between main food and dished and made it hard to differentiate what was the primary and what was the secondary. The food structure embodied the political position and noble social stratum of food eaters.It has been found that“harmony”, a term usually considered as a conception in politics and philosophy, has something direct and original to do with the appropriate proportion of five flavors in cuisine. The“harmony”pointed out in food rites of Zhouli does not only mean the right proportion of five flavors (sweet, salty, bitter, sour, pungent), but also the balance of natural tastes of food, the coordination and unison of food with four seasons in a year, and the harmony and unification of food with human body. The regulations concerning the choice and use of cooking materials in Zhouli aimed at obtaining top quality cooking materials. However, at the same time the regulations also paid attention to the protection of animal and plant resources, reflecting a kind of dim consciousness that human beings and nature should live in harmony. As is stipulated in the regulation of Zhouli, the royal court had a diet of three meals a day, which says a regulation of three meals a day emerged in the Pre-Qin society in China. Zhouli established an official post called“Shijiyan”in charge of the proper use of bamboo mats and tea tables when various eating and drinking activities were held. Just for that,“Yanxi”(a bamboo mat spread on the floor for people to sit) has developed into a substitute term for today’s banquet.Another distinct characteristics for Zhouli is that food utensils were not only used for cooking, they were also looked upon as ritual vessels. Zhouli kept a detailed record of rigidly stratified food utensil use regulations with“Ding”at the core. (an ancient cooking vessel with two loop handles and three or four legs). There were a lot of regulations in Zhouli concerning the use of food utensils, such as the use of“Ding”, the combination and grouping of“Ding”,“Gui”,“Zu”,”Huo”and (bowls, pot, stove, dinning table and etc), the use of“Bian”and“Dou”( a kind of vessels for dish-filling ), the use of wine-drinking vessels showing the difference between the honorable and the humble, the use of six larger and six smaller wine pots, the use of wine-drawing instruments for the emperor. The idea that Zhou people thought highly of food found the expression in the series of regulations mentioned above with“Ding”and“Gui”at the core. Zhouli divided the combination of food utensils into four classes in accordance with the ranks of nobility. The emperor and the dukes or princes under him enjoyed“12 Dings and Guis”, which was East Zhou regulation overstepping the rite vessel regulation of West Zhou. The use of food utensils in an appropriate combination described in Zhouli, in fact, has become a symbol of the political power and social position of royal court and nobles, and therefore, it is an implement by which food embodies polities.Food rite regulations are measures stipulating the procedures, protocol, sacrificial vessels and food kinds used for different dietetic activities. The stylization and institutionization of dietetic activities found their expression in the protocol of “Laoli”( cow, sheep, pig), the food rite of“Yongsun”(different amounts of food), and the rite of“Xiangshiyan”(Scales of grand occasions). The“Laoli”stipulated the amounts and grades of draught animals, stored foodstuff, poultry and other dishes and also the occasions of their use when the emperor went to a sacred place, had an interview, invited important people or entertained his guests.Zhouli was the law-main key link for food rite regulations. The difference between“Yong”and“Sun”lies in the amount of food given by the monarch to his guests. Grand food was called“Yong”, in contrast, decreased amount of food was called“Sun”. The rite of“Xiang”in Zhouli took the guests as visitors and its objects. Judging from the whole process of the rite of“Xiang”was not only giving salute to the guests and visitors through performing the grand rite as was considered by the scholars of ancient times. It included giving a grand banquet to entertain them. In Zhouli, the duties of“Daxingren”,“Zhangke”required that the rites of“Yong”、“Sun”、“Xiang’’、“Shi”and“Yan”be divided into three classes in the light of dukes and marquises. The clear definition of gift grades and the performance of a certain ceremony during the dietetic activities in Zhouli aimed at the expression of courtesy and loyalty and full play of political social function of rites so that the political formation of higher and lower orders could be ensured and the harmony among the monarch, his subjects and the people and the state peace could last forever.更多还原